Etruscan civilization.

The Enruscan (Etrusci) (Etruschi) (τυρσηνοί, τυρρηνοί) civilization was located in ancient Italy territory. They were before the Romans.

This civilization had its own society, culture, kings, laws, language, arts, mythology, and etc. 

The Etruscan was before the Romans. They were during Iron and Bronze Ages.

Later the Etruscan were assimilated into Romans.

This civilization had many different things. There are ceramics, statues, jewelry, cities from the Etruscan.

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Byzantine Empire.

 Byzantium or Eastern Roman Empire (Imperium Romanum Orientale, Romania) (Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων, Ῥωμανία) was a province in the late antiquity and early Middle Ages. Capital of Byzantium was Constantinople. This city was large.

The Byzantine Empire left after the Roman Empire.

This country had its own culture, laws, civilization, rules, and emperors. Byzantine Empire was powerful for that time.

People in this empire talked in Greek language. But they identified themselves as Romans. Their religion was Christianity.

Byzantine Empire was a wealthy country in the early medieval period. Eastern Roman Empire had its own schools and education.

This country had many wars during its history. Rulers of other counties wanted to conquer Byzantium.

Also, Byzantine Empire had many architectural works. Different churches and other buildings had their  own style for Middle Ages.

But later this empire lost some parts. Empire which existed several centuries fell.

Byzantine Empire left legacy. Other countries studied this history. During Renaissance (XIV-XVII centuries) culture of Byzantium helped scientists.

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Sparta.

 Sparta (Σπάρτη) was a city-state in ancient Greece. Also, Sparta had another name Lacedaemon (Λακεδαίμων) The city-state was situated in Laconia, in south Peloponnese, on the banks of the Eurotas river. 

There were their own laws, culture, architecture, military, government, society, citizens, and rules. Citizens of Sparta had rights and responsibilities.

Some aspects were different from other regions of ancient Greece. There were three groups in Sparta: the Spartans, the Helots, and the Perioeci. 

Spartan boys had military education. They started since seven years. Later adult men studied in a state system. Courage, military, discipline were important for soldiers. Spartans had their own uniform. Helmet, round shield, and sword were parts of it.

But Spartan empire was fall. Army lost the war.

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Celts.

Celts were people who lived in Central and Western Europe. They had relationships with other civilizations, too.

These people visited neighboring places. Also, Celts had their own arts, mythology, culture, religion, laws, rules, and languages.

Timeline of Celts: beginning of Celtic culture (c. 1400 B. C. E.), Celts migrated (c. 900 B. C. E.), Iron age (c. B. C. E.-c. 600 B. C. E.), Celts settled in Iberia (600 B. C. E.), Celts defeated the Etruscans (c. 475 B. C. E.), La Tene culture (c. 450 B. C. E.), Celts entered in Italy (400 B. C. E.).

Some names of cities and countries had come from Celts. There are many things in museums about this civilization. Historians study Celtic history.

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Vikings.

Vikings were people who lived in Scandinavian Peninsula. They had their own culture, mythology, religions, travels, language, literature, and laws.

In VII-XI centuries these people had period known as the Viking Age (793-1066 A. D.). Viking had their own famous boats. Other countries wrote about Vikings.

People did voyages to neighbourhood countries. During wars Vikings used weapons.

After this period in Scandinavian Peninsula new countries appeared. But Vikings and their culture were important. Historians found statues of gods, helmets, maps, architecture, and etc.

Some of historic things are in museums. People can look at them.

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Aztecs.

Aztecs lived in central Mexico. They created an empire.

This country had its own military, laws, society, calendar, language (Nahault), city-states, government, writing, mythology, and etc. It was during Pre-Columbian era.

Aztec civilization timeline: the first tribes appeared (1100 C. E. -1200 C. E.), this civilizzation became development (c. 1345 C. E.-1521 C. E.), the Aztec capital of Tenochtirlan on Lake Texcoco was founded (1345 C. E.), the Tarascan civilization flourished in Mesoamerica (1350 C. E.-1522 C. E.), New Fire ceremony celebrated by the Aztecs (1351 C. E.), Acamapichtli ruled as leader of the Aztecs (1375 C. E.-1395 C. E.), Huitzilopochtli reigned as leader of the Aztec empire (1396 C. E.-1417 C. E.), Chimalpopoca ruled as leader of the Aztec empire (1417 C. E.-1426 C. E.).

This ancient country is still study by historians.

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Inca Empire.

This civilization was situated in South America. Also, Inca Empire was the biggest country in pre-Columbian America. About XI-XVI centuries people had their own laws and rules.

The Inca called their country as Tawantinsuyu in Quechua language. Timeline of Inca Empire: The Inca tribe founded the city of Cuzco (1200 A. D.), people lived in the city of Cuzco (1200-1400 A. D.), Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui became the leader of Inca, he built the city of Machu Picchu (1438 A. D.), Pachacuti's son, named Tupac Inca Yupanui, became an emperor (1471 A. D.), Emperor Tupac won the Chuma Empire and their lands (1476 A. D.), Tupac's son, Huayna Capac, became an emperor (1493 A. D.).

Empire had its own army, religion, architecture, mythology, languages, economy, and government.

Some of it is still studied by historians.

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Maya civilization.

Maya civilization was situated in Central America. This country had its own history and cities. Writing, language, arts, religion, and architecture were important for them.

Timeline of Maya civilization: Archaic (8000 B. C.-2000 B. C.), Early Preclassic (2000 B. C.-1000 B. C.), Middle Preclassic (1000 B. C.-400 B. C.), Late Preclassic (400 B. C.-100 A. D.), Terminal Preclassic (100 A. D.-250 A. D.), Preclassic Collapse, Classic Period (c. 250-900 A. D.), Classic Maya Collapse, Postclassic period (c. 950-1539 A. D.).

During this time country did a lot of things. The Maya people invented calendar. Also, they built pyramids.

Civilization had sales with each other and neighbourhood countries. Like all ancient civilizations Maya had unique culture, such as: laws, society, pottery, mythology, astronomy, goverment.

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Assyria.

Assyria was a kingdom in Mesopotamia. Its capital was Assur city. Style of government was monarchy. One of official language was Sumerian. People believed in Mesopotamian gods.

There were many different periods in this country. Early Period (2600-2025 B. C.), Old Assyrian Empire (911-605 B. C.), Middle Assyrian Empire (1392-934 B. C.), Neo-Assyrian Empire (911-605 B. C.).

Each of them were very important for history. A lot of events happened in Assyria.

Ashurbanipal was the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (668-627 B. C.). He did a lot of things for his country. Ashurbanipal influenced military, arts, culture, literature.

Library of Ashurbanipal was a beautiful palace with clay tablets. Ancient legends and laws of country there archieved. Even after a fire during a war some clay tablets were saved.

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Babylonia.

Babylonia was situated in southern Mesopotamia. The ancient civilization appeared in 1894 B. C.

There were many important periods in Babylonia. First Babylinian Dynasty (1894-1595 B. C.), Kassite Dynasty (1595-1155 B. C.), Early Iron Age-Native Rule, Second Dynasty of Isin (1155-1026 B. C.), Period of Chaos (1026-911 B. C.), Assyrian rule (911-619 B. C.).

People in Babylonia had their own kings and laws. King Hammurabi ruled (1792-1750 B. C.) and created many laws in this country (known as Code of Hammurabi). They were very different.

Also, Babylonia had its own gods, arts, culture, and architecture.

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Great people: Isaac Newton.

Isaac Newton was born on January 4, 1643 (Old Style, December 25, 1642), at Woolsthorpe, England. His father died before Isaac was born. Isaac Newton's mother Hannah Ayscough noticed that her son was very clever boy since early childhood.

Isaac really was interested in physics, difficult science. Also, Newton studied Mathematics, Geometry, and Astronomy. In that time many many scientific laws were not know for people.

The scientist did a lot of important things for modern physics. Isaac Newton studied moving of subjects. He created Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation. These laws and other discoveries are still important for us.

Isaac Newton was a popular man in his time. He never married. The scientist died in London on March 32, 1727.

Physics.

Physics is one of the hardest school subjects and sciences. Therefore this subject is taught in high schools.

Some laws of phycics have been discovered in ancient times. There are complex physical formulas. Atoms and molecules are an important part of this hard science. Light and electricity work by the laws of physics.

Astronauts must know physics for their work. Ordinary people also should know that science. For example, water is a good conductor of electricity. Electrical items can not be touched by wet hands.

Famous scientists who studied physics: Aristotle, Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein. Today scientists study this science too.

Perhaps physics is more difficult than mathematics. If math is necessary to understand, for physics than physics is more difficult. There is a common subject on physics-chemestry. This science also has complicated formulas.

It was an essay about one of the most complex subjects. Next time will be another.

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